SHIPSHAPE AND BRISTOL FASHION: 
The prime surface combatants in modern navies are destroyers and frigates but these terms can be ‘flexible’, as while both ship types are distinctive yet complementary, they are indispensable for today’s maritime forces.
Japan’s ‘Izumo’ class ships, whose lead example was launched in August 2013, follows the official description of the ‘Hyuga’ class as a ‘helicopter-capable destroyer’, but most navies would agree with industry bible Jane’s Fighting Ships which describe both ship classes as ‘helicopter carriers’. The destroyer was originally what would now be described as a stand-off attack Anti-Surface Warfare (ASuW) platform using torpedoes. It then became more of a fleet escort vessel to shield larger surface combatants, such as aircraft carriers, increasingly for the Anti-Air Warfare (AAW) role. The ASuW role became a secondary one together with Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW) and Naval Gunfire Support (NGS) for troops ashore.
Descriptions of modern surface combatants are flexible and generic because they reflect not only a navy’s requirements but a country’s industrial and economic posture. The modern (post-1980) Asia-Pacific destroyer tends to be a vessel with a full-load displacement of 3900-10500 tons and between 133 and 166 metres (436-544 feet) in length at the water line. It is primarily an AAW platform with a Surface-to-Air Missile (SAM) system capable of providing area defence at ranges of 30-90 nautical miles (56-167 kilometres). For the ASuW role it now has a surface-to-surface missile system augmented by a heavy calibre (76-127mm) gun which is the prime NGS weapon while for ASW role it embarks one or two helicopters augmented by ship-mounted lightweight torpedo launchers. The sensors will usually be air and surface surveillance radars augmented by a hull-mounted active sonar.
Ship Definitions
The frigate emerged during the 20th century as a sea lanes escort vessel, primarily as an ASW platform with secondary AAW and NGS roles. It has since received a significant ASuW capability through the anti-ship Surface-to-Surface Missile (SSM) making it a mini-destroyer acting as a multi-role escort vessel for both major surface combatants and merchantmen. Modern Asia-Pacific frigates have displacements of 2000-6300 tons and are 102-143m (334-469ft) long at the waterline and, given their ASW background, can augment hull-mounted sonars with towed array or variable depth sensors together with helicopters and torpedo launchers.
Towed array sensors are more effective in ocean-going or ‘blue water’ environments with passive towed arrays operated by Japan’s ‘Abukuma’ class destroyers and the Republic of Korea’s (RoK) later ‘Incheon’ class frigates, while complex littoral or ‘green water’ environments are best suited for variable depth sonars such as those selected for India’s ‘Talwar’ class and Singapore’s ‘Formidable’ class frigates; indeed the last is the only modern frigate class with no hull-mounted sensor. Towed array sonars with an active capability have been selected for India’s ‘Shivalik’ class and for Taiwan’s ‘Cheng Kung’ and ‘Kang Ding’ frigate classes. Frigates usually have 76mm guns, although Malaysia’s ‘Leiku’ class have only a 57mm gun, and a local-area, 5-7nm (9-13km) SAM system.
Destroyers tend to be ‘blue water’ ships in navies with major mercantile interests who need long range protection while frigates can be ‘blue water’ platforms but they are more versatile and can operate in ‘green water’ (littoral) or even ‘brown water’ (coastal) environments. Diesel engines are frequently found in surface combatants all over the world because they provide considerable power while having excellent fuel consumption characteristics but they are slow to react if a surge of power is required. Many Asia-Pacific frigate operators rely upon diesel power but some, and most destroyer operators, augment them with gas turbines which are ‘thirsty’ but can provide power surges almost instantly, the Combined gas turbine/Diesel propulsion (CODOG) systems teaming the best of both in frigates operated by Australia, Japan, the RoK, Thailand and Vietnam. Australia and Taiwan are also unusual in having gas turbine-powered frigates while some Chinese destroyers and Indian frigates have the older steam turbine system which has similar performance characteristics to CODOG but is manpower intensive.
Frigate Investments
Many Asia-Pacific navies aim at dominance only as far as their Economic Exclusion Zones and, therefore, operate smaller frigates. Bangladesh, Pakistan, Malaysia, the RoK, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam all operate frigates in 2000-3000 ton range while Democratic Republic of Korea (DPRK) has recently launched two 1300-ton ships. A similar doctrine appears to have shaped the design of frigates in two of the region’s major navies, China and Japan, with some of the former’s earliest modern frigate ventures being the ‘Jianghu III’ class while Japan produced the ‘Abukuma’ class. In Japan the destroyer has become the prime surface combatant while in many navies, such as Indonesia and Malaysia, there is a trend towards smaller surface combatants such as corvettes, while Jakarta is acquiring former Royal Navy ‘Broadsword’ class frigates.
Bangladesh, Pakistan, the Philippines and Thailand are all seeking new frigates with the Thai choice being arguably the most interesting. The two ships ordered from Daewoo are reported to be based upon the RoK Navy’s ‘Kwanggaeto Daewang’ class of destroyer, with Raytheon RIM-162 Evolved Sea Sparrow Missiles (ESSM), with delivery of the first scheduled for 2018. It is worth noting that the United States continues to offer the ‘Oliver Hazard Perry’ class multi-role ships although with the phasing out of their Raytheon RIM-66 Standard Missile-1 SAM they lack an AAW capability.
The Asia-Pacific’s major powers aim for larger frigates, India with the 6300 ton ‘Shivalik’ class, China with 3900 ton ‘Jiangkai I/II’ class and the RoK with the 3250 ton ‘Incheon’ class. This reflects a desire to extend protection of national maritime lines of communications, a motivation of both Australia and New Zealand whose ‘Anzac’ class frigates have bucked the trend by being, at some 3800 tons, smaller than their predecessors. China and the RoK continue to expand their fleets with the former adding six ‘Jiangkai II’ class frigates to the fleet in 2013 and more this year, while in November 2013 the RoK launched the fifth of its ‘Incheon’ class frigates with the fourth scheduled for delivery in October 2014.
In the meantime there are several frigate upgrade programmes underway. Thailand is improving the AAW capability of its Chinese-built ‘Naresuan’ class ships and this work should be completed next year. In addition the ‘Cha Paraya’ class vessels (based upon the ‘Jiangwei I/II’ class ships) are receiving new ASuW missiles. Australia’s ‘Anzac’ class frigates will receive domestically-produced phased array radars and new communications systems while their ASuW and AAW capabilities have been improved through new weapons and electronics. New Zealand’s two ‘Anzac’ ships have received improved propulsion and are to get a missile decoy system, improved electronic support measures and a torpedo detection system. In October 2013 it was announced that the new MBDA Sea Ceptor SAM had been selected as the AAW weapon for these vessels.
One of the most interesting upgrades is that of Pakistan’s ‘Sword’ class frigates, of which the first-of-class PNS Zulfiquar recently tested a land-attack missile, although it is unclear whether or not it was a modified China Haiying Electro-Mechanical Technology Academy C-802 anti-ship weapon or a dedicated cruise missile design. The RoK’s new ‘Incheon’ class will have a similar capability using the domestically-produced Cheon Ryong SSM.
Destroyer Demand
Land-attack is one of two new roles for destroyers. The RoK’s ‘Sejong Daewang’ class will also carry the Cheon Ryong SSM while Australia’s ‘Hobart’ class are likely to carry Raytheon BGM-109 Tomahawk land-attack missiles. The RoK will probably seek a similar capability with its next generation of destroyers from the second half of the next decade. Given the DPRK’s nuclear ballistic missile sabre-rattling they will probably have, like Japan’s ‘Atago’ and ‘Kongou’ class ships, a Ballistic Missile Defence (BMD) capability. Japan is working with the United States to produce advanced versions of the Raytheon RIM-161 Standard Missile-3 (SM-3) SAM. Tokyo may add two more BMD destroyers to its six-strong fleet while three more destroyers with the Lockheed Martin Aegis Combat Management System (CMS) have been requested for the RoK Navy. The keel for the second ‘Hobart’ class destroyer, HMAS Brisbane, was laid in February 2014 and it seems likely they will also eventually have a BMD capability.
The ‘Hobart’ class with their Raytheon RIM-66 SM-2 medium-range and RIM-162 short-range SAMs reflect a growing trend for major Asia-Pacific navies to seek destroyers capable of multiple roles. The trend is underlined by India’s new ‘Kolkata’ class destroyers which feature the Israeli-designed Israel Aerospace Industries/Rafael Advanced Defence Systems Barak SAMs in their tactical (Barak 1) and area defence (Barak 8) versions, and are likely to receive a towed array sonar which is absent from China’s contemporary ‘Luzhou’ and ‘Luyang II’ classes. Interestingly, like most Indian destroyers, they will be equipped with heavyweight torpedo systems which are designed to extend ASW capability but, in Russian hands, have been used in ASuW exercises. India certainly needs to improve its destroyers’ AAW capability for the existing Russian-built ‘Rajput’ class and the ‘Delhi’ class all feature ageing area defence systems. By contrast China, whose ‘Luyang II’ class ships appear to have radar and command systems on a par with the Aegis CMS in the ‘Atago’, ‘Hobart’, ‘Kongous’ and ‘Sejong Daewang’ class vessels, appear to have a modern SAM system in the form of their China Precision Machinery Import-Export Corporation HHQ-9 and Almaz-Antey Rif-M ensembles, the new generation of destroyers and frigates all featuring hull-shaping and special materials to reduce their radar signature, and similar means to reduce their infra-red and acoustic signatures.
The major Asia-Pacific navies are beginning to replace their aging fleets. India, for example, aims to exchange the British ‘Leander’ class based ‘Godavari’, ‘Brahmaputra’ and ‘Nilgiri’ classes with the domestically-produced ‘Shivalik’ and the Russian-built ‘Talwar’ classes. New Delhi is interested in more ‘Talwar’ class ships and improved ‘Shivalik’ class examples. China’s expansion is likely to see all the ‘Luda’ class destroyers replaced by’ ‘Luyang II’ class or later designs while the ‘Jianghu’ class frigates are being replaced by ‘Jiangkai II’ class vessels, which will probably replace the ‘Jiangwei I’ class. The ‘Jianghu’ class ships, which form half the frigate force, lack any AAW capability, while the ‘Jiangwei’ class can perform local area air defence but their ASW role is as limited as the ‘Jianghu’ class.
The RoK is replacing the ‘Ulsan’ class frigates with the ‘Incheon’ class with six displacing 3,200 tons followed by up to nine additional ships which will be slightly larger, have gas turbines and an enhanced ASW capability through the introduction of towed array sonars. By 2026 there are planned to be 24 ‘Incheon’ class ships in service. Meanwhile, Japan is likely to expand its destroyer fleet in a policy driven by growing tensions with China over territories on the periphery of each nation. Currently, Tokyo maintains a force of some 40 destroyers and for both operational and economic reasons has long maintained a policy of steadily ordering key platforms, notably destroyers and submarines. It is extremely likely that the Japan Maritime Self-Defence Force is now planning replacements for the nine ‘Hatsuyuki’ class ships which have only local area air defence missile systems.
Bangladesh, now operating RoK and Chinese-built frigates, is reported to have ordered up to four ‘Jiangwei I’ class multi-role frigates from China and is planning to buy more modified ‘Ulsan’ class ships from the RoK. Neighbouring Burma has acquired two second-hand ‘Jianghu II’ class frigates and is reportedly upgrading them with new SSMs. It reportedly has plans to build up to two ‘Jiangwei’ class frigates but this seems over ambitious. Pakistan is to buy another four frigates, believed to be either ‘Jiangkai I’ or ‘Jiangkai II’ class ships from China, and Thailand has ordered up to three new Chinese vessels. Vietnam is receiving four Russian-built ‘Dinh Tien Hoang’ class multi-role frigates and plans to build another four. Across the South China Sea, the Philippines has begun a procurement programme for two new frigates with South Korea’s Daewoo, Hyundai and STX together with Spain’s Navantia throwing their hats into the ring. The first ship is not expected until around the end of the decade but Manila has rejected the second-hand acquisition option.
The Pacific Rim’s growing prosperity makes a growing demand for both destroyers and frigates certain. It will be met increasingly from domestic sources although third country manufacturers will remain prime suppliers in the foreseeable future for the provision of propulsion, sensor, communications and weapon systems.
by Edward Hooton
The prime surface combatants in modern navies are destroyers and frigates but these terms can be ‘flexible’, as while both ship types are distinctive yet complementary, they are indispensable for today’s maritime forces.Japan’s ‘Izumo’ class ships, whose lead example was launched in August 2013, follows the official description of the ‘Hyuga’ class as a ‘helicopter-capable destroyer’, but most navies would agree with industry bible Jane’s Fighting Ships which describe both ship classes as ‘helicopter carriers’. The destroyer was originally what would now be described as a stand-off attack Anti-Surface Warfare (ASuW) platform using torpedoes. It then became more of a fleet escort vessel to shield larger surface combatants, such as aircraft carriers, increasingly for the Anti-Air Warfare (AAW) role. The ASuW role became a secondary one together with Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW) and Naval Gunfire Support (NGS) for troops ashore.
Descriptions of modern surface combatants are flexible and generic because they reflect not only a navy’s requirements but a country’s industrial and economic posture. The modern (post-1980) Asia-Pacific destroyer tends to be a vessel with a full-load displacement of 3900-10500 tons and between 133 and 166 metres (436-544 feet) in length at the water line. It is primarily an AAW platform with a Surface-to-Air Missile (SAM) system capable of providing area defence at ranges of 30-90 nautical miles (56-167 kilometres). For the ASuW role it now has a surface-to-surface missile system augmented by a heavy calibre (76-127mm) gun which is the prime NGS weapon while for ASW role it embarks one or two helicopters augmented by ship-mounted lightweight torpedo launchers. The sensors will usually be air and surface surveillance radars augmented by a hull-mounted active sonar.
Ship Definitions
The frigate emerged during the 20th century as a sea lanes escort vessel, primarily as an ASW platform with secondary AAW and NGS roles. It has since received a significant ASuW capability through the anti-ship Surface-to-Surface Missile (SSM) making it a mini-destroyer acting as a multi-role escort vessel for both major surface combatants and merchantmen. Modern Asia-Pacific frigates have displacements of 2000-6300 tons and are 102-143m (334-469ft) long at the waterline and, given their ASW background, can augment hull-mounted sonars with towed array or variable depth sensors together with helicopters and torpedo launchers.
Towed array sensors are more effective in ocean-going or ‘blue water’ environments with passive towed arrays operated by Japan’s ‘Abukuma’ class destroyers and the Republic of Korea’s (RoK) later ‘Incheon’ class frigates, while complex littoral or ‘green water’ environments are best suited for variable depth sonars such as those selected for India’s ‘Talwar’ class and Singapore’s ‘Formidable’ class frigates; indeed the last is the only modern frigate class with no hull-mounted sensor. Towed array sonars with an active capability have been selected for India’s ‘Shivalik’ class and for Taiwan’s ‘Cheng Kung’ and ‘Kang Ding’ frigate classes. Frigates usually have 76mm guns, although Malaysia’s ‘Leiku’ class have only a 57mm gun, and a local-area, 5-7nm (9-13km) SAM system.
Destroyers tend to be ‘blue water’ ships in navies with major mercantile interests who need long range protection while frigates can be ‘blue water’ platforms but they are more versatile and can operate in ‘green water’ (littoral) or even ‘brown water’ (coastal) environments. Diesel engines are frequently found in surface combatants all over the world because they provide considerable power while having excellent fuel consumption characteristics but they are slow to react if a surge of power is required. Many Asia-Pacific frigate operators rely upon diesel power but some, and most destroyer operators, augment them with gas turbines which are ‘thirsty’ but can provide power surges almost instantly, the Combined gas turbine/Diesel propulsion (CODOG) systems teaming the best of both in frigates operated by Australia, Japan, the RoK, Thailand and Vietnam. Australia and Taiwan are also unusual in having gas turbine-powered frigates while some Chinese destroyers and Indian frigates have the older steam turbine system which has similar performance characteristics to CODOG but is manpower intensive.
Frigate Investments
Many Asia-Pacific navies aim at dominance only as far as their Economic Exclusion Zones and, therefore, operate smaller frigates. Bangladesh, Pakistan, Malaysia, the RoK, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam all operate frigates in 2000-3000 ton range while Democratic Republic of Korea (DPRK) has recently launched two 1300-ton ships. A similar doctrine appears to have shaped the design of frigates in two of the region’s major navies, China and Japan, with some of the former’s earliest modern frigate ventures being the ‘Jianghu III’ class while Japan produced the ‘Abukuma’ class. In Japan the destroyer has become the prime surface combatant while in many navies, such as Indonesia and Malaysia, there is a trend towards smaller surface combatants such as corvettes, while Jakarta is acquiring former Royal Navy ‘Broadsword’ class frigates.
Bangladesh, Pakistan, the Philippines and Thailand are all seeking new frigates with the Thai choice being arguably the most interesting. The two ships ordered from Daewoo are reported to be based upon the RoK Navy’s ‘Kwanggaeto Daewang’ class of destroyer, with Raytheon RIM-162 Evolved Sea Sparrow Missiles (ESSM), with delivery of the first scheduled for 2018. It is worth noting that the United States continues to offer the ‘Oliver Hazard Perry’ class multi-role ships although with the phasing out of their Raytheon RIM-66 Standard Missile-1 SAM they lack an AAW capability.
The Asia-Pacific’s major powers aim for larger frigates, India with the 6300 ton ‘Shivalik’ class, China with 3900 ton ‘Jiangkai I/II’ class and the RoK with the 3250 ton ‘Incheon’ class. This reflects a desire to extend protection of national maritime lines of communications, a motivation of both Australia and New Zealand whose ‘Anzac’ class frigates have bucked the trend by being, at some 3800 tons, smaller than their predecessors. China and the RoK continue to expand their fleets with the former adding six ‘Jiangkai II’ class frigates to the fleet in 2013 and more this year, while in November 2013 the RoK launched the fifth of its ‘Incheon’ class frigates with the fourth scheduled for delivery in October 2014.
In the meantime there are several frigate upgrade programmes underway. Thailand is improving the AAW capability of its Chinese-built ‘Naresuan’ class ships and this work should be completed next year. In addition the ‘Cha Paraya’ class vessels (based upon the ‘Jiangwei I/II’ class ships) are receiving new ASuW missiles. Australia’s ‘Anzac’ class frigates will receive domestically-produced phased array radars and new communications systems while their ASuW and AAW capabilities have been improved through new weapons and electronics. New Zealand’s two ‘Anzac’ ships have received improved propulsion and are to get a missile decoy system, improved electronic support measures and a torpedo detection system. In October 2013 it was announced that the new MBDA Sea Ceptor SAM had been selected as the AAW weapon for these vessels.
One of the most interesting upgrades is that of Pakistan’s ‘Sword’ class frigates, of which the first-of-class PNS Zulfiquar recently tested a land-attack missile, although it is unclear whether or not it was a modified China Haiying Electro-Mechanical Technology Academy C-802 anti-ship weapon or a dedicated cruise missile design. The RoK’s new ‘Incheon’ class will have a similar capability using the domestically-produced Cheon Ryong SSM.
Destroyer Demand
Land-attack is one of two new roles for destroyers. The RoK’s ‘Sejong Daewang’ class will also carry the Cheon Ryong SSM while Australia’s ‘Hobart’ class are likely to carry Raytheon BGM-109 Tomahawk land-attack missiles. The RoK will probably seek a similar capability with its next generation of destroyers from the second half of the next decade. Given the DPRK’s nuclear ballistic missile sabre-rattling they will probably have, like Japan’s ‘Atago’ and ‘Kongou’ class ships, a Ballistic Missile Defence (BMD) capability. Japan is working with the United States to produce advanced versions of the Raytheon RIM-161 Standard Missile-3 (SM-3) SAM. Tokyo may add two more BMD destroyers to its six-strong fleet while three more destroyers with the Lockheed Martin Aegis Combat Management System (CMS) have been requested for the RoK Navy. The keel for the second ‘Hobart’ class destroyer, HMAS Brisbane, was laid in February 2014 and it seems likely they will also eventually have a BMD capability.
The ‘Hobart’ class with their Raytheon RIM-66 SM-2 medium-range and RIM-162 short-range SAMs reflect a growing trend for major Asia-Pacific navies to seek destroyers capable of multiple roles. The trend is underlined by India’s new ‘Kolkata’ class destroyers which feature the Israeli-designed Israel Aerospace Industries/Rafael Advanced Defence Systems Barak SAMs in their tactical (Barak 1) and area defence (Barak 8) versions, and are likely to receive a towed array sonar which is absent from China’s contemporary ‘Luzhou’ and ‘Luyang II’ classes. Interestingly, like most Indian destroyers, they will be equipped with heavyweight torpedo systems which are designed to extend ASW capability but, in Russian hands, have been used in ASuW exercises. India certainly needs to improve its destroyers’ AAW capability for the existing Russian-built ‘Rajput’ class and the ‘Delhi’ class all feature ageing area defence systems. By contrast China, whose ‘Luyang II’ class ships appear to have radar and command systems on a par with the Aegis CMS in the ‘Atago’, ‘Hobart’, ‘Kongous’ and ‘Sejong Daewang’ class vessels, appear to have a modern SAM system in the form of their China Precision Machinery Import-Export Corporation HHQ-9 and Almaz-Antey Rif-M ensembles, the new generation of destroyers and frigates all featuring hull-shaping and special materials to reduce their radar signature, and similar means to reduce their infra-red and acoustic signatures.
The major Asia-Pacific navies are beginning to replace their aging fleets. India, for example, aims to exchange the British ‘Leander’ class based ‘Godavari’, ‘Brahmaputra’ and ‘Nilgiri’ classes with the domestically-produced ‘Shivalik’ and the Russian-built ‘Talwar’ classes. New Delhi is interested in more ‘Talwar’ class ships and improved ‘Shivalik’ class examples. China’s expansion is likely to see all the ‘Luda’ class destroyers replaced by’ ‘Luyang II’ class or later designs while the ‘Jianghu’ class frigates are being replaced by ‘Jiangkai II’ class vessels, which will probably replace the ‘Jiangwei I’ class. The ‘Jianghu’ class ships, which form half the frigate force, lack any AAW capability, while the ‘Jiangwei’ class can perform local area air defence but their ASW role is as limited as the ‘Jianghu’ class.
The RoK is replacing the ‘Ulsan’ class frigates with the ‘Incheon’ class with six displacing 3,200 tons followed by up to nine additional ships which will be slightly larger, have gas turbines and an enhanced ASW capability through the introduction of towed array sonars. By 2026 there are planned to be 24 ‘Incheon’ class ships in service. Meanwhile, Japan is likely to expand its destroyer fleet in a policy driven by growing tensions with China over territories on the periphery of each nation. Currently, Tokyo maintains a force of some 40 destroyers and for both operational and economic reasons has long maintained a policy of steadily ordering key platforms, notably destroyers and submarines. It is extremely likely that the Japan Maritime Self-Defence Force is now planning replacements for the nine ‘Hatsuyuki’ class ships which have only local area air defence missile systems.
Bangladesh, now operating RoK and Chinese-built frigates, is reported to have ordered up to four ‘Jiangwei I’ class multi-role frigates from China and is planning to buy more modified ‘Ulsan’ class ships from the RoK. Neighbouring Burma has acquired two second-hand ‘Jianghu II’ class frigates and is reportedly upgrading them with new SSMs. It reportedly has plans to build up to two ‘Jiangwei’ class frigates but this seems over ambitious. Pakistan is to buy another four frigates, believed to be either ‘Jiangkai I’ or ‘Jiangkai II’ class ships from China, and Thailand has ordered up to three new Chinese vessels. Vietnam is receiving four Russian-built ‘Dinh Tien Hoang’ class multi-role frigates and plans to build another four. Across the South China Sea, the Philippines has begun a procurement programme for two new frigates with South Korea’s Daewoo, Hyundai and STX together with Spain’s Navantia throwing their hats into the ring. The first ship is not expected until around the end of the decade but Manila has rejected the second-hand acquisition option.
The Pacific Rim’s growing prosperity makes a growing demand for both destroyers and frigates certain. It will be met increasingly from domestic sources although third country manufacturers will remain prime suppliers in the foreseeable future for the provision of propulsion, sensor, communications and weapon systems.
by Edward Hooton
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